Climate Smart Agriculture Strategies for Zambia – Analysis of Policies and Programmes
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Dear Friends & Colleagues
Statistics from the Living Conditions Monitoring Survey of 2015 show that over 50% of the population live below the poverty line. This vulnerable population does not have sufficient capacity to cope with, or adapt to the impacts of extreme weather events. One of major contributors to extreme weather patterns has been deforestation. The country’s forest cover has been lost due to massive deforestations with losses in excess of 79,000 hectares of forest cover per annum (Integrated Land Use Assessment Report, 2016).
To effectively cope with climate change, there is need to develop adaptation and mitigative measures to address climate change. At the national level, Government has developed national strategies and attempted to domesticate some international interventions. Key among the several noticeable strategies include the following; Climate Change Policy (2016); The Zambia’s National Climate Change Response Strategy (2010); National Policy on Environment (2009), National Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) 2015 among others.
At a global level Zambia is a signatory to the Paris Climate Change Agreement through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) where countries have committed themselves to implement ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects while promoting sustainable development.
1
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE STRATEGIES FOR ZAMBIA –
ANALYSIS OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
ANALYSIS APRIL 2020
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE STRATEGIES FOR ZAMBIA –
ANALYSIS OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
ANALYSIS APRIL 2020
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PREPARED BY:
TECHNICAL REVIEW:
Albert Kasoma (Senior Researcher) with the support of Bernadette Deka Zulu (Executive
Director)
RESEARCH:
Salim Kaunda (Head of Research and Analysis)
EDITORIAL TEAM:
Brian Sambo Mwila (Communication Specialist) Layout and Design
Melody Simukali (Head of Communication and Grants) Editorial
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE STRATEGIES FOR ZAMBIA –
ANALYSIS OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms 5
Executive Summary 6
Introduction 9
Background 10
Impact of Climate Change on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 11
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 12
Average Annual Temperatures 13
Average Annual Precipitation 14
Policy Documents on Climate Change 15
The Paris Climate Change Agreement 15
Seventh National Development Plan (2017-2021) 16
National Agriculture Policy 2016 17
National Energy Policy 2008 18
National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES),2016 18
National Climate Change Response Strategy, 2010 20
National Climate Change Policy, 2016 21
National Policy on Environment, 2009 21
National Strategy for Reducing Emissions
(REDD+), 2015 22
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change, 2007 23
National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP), 2014-2018 23
National Forestry Policy, 2009 26
Presidential/ Ministerial Pronouncements 27
Why carbon tax should be rationalized across all sectors 28
Lessons from other countries 30
Recommendations 31
Conclusion 32
References 33
List of figures/table
Figure 1: Average Monthly Temperatures 14
Figure 2: Average Annual Precipitation 14
Figure 3: Estimates of GHG for Zambia ,1990-2015 29
Table 1: National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) Budget 25
PAGE
5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AR4 Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC
CA Conservation Agriculture
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2eq CO2 equivalent (using the GWP-100 metric of AR4)
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
EDGAR Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Green House Gas
GWO-100 Global Warming Potential over a 100 years period
JRC Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
Mt Megatonnes (106 tonnes or 1 tera gramme) mass of a given (greenhouse
gas) substance
n/a Not Available
NPCC National Policy on Climate Change
T Tonne (1 t or 1 mega gramme) mass of a given (greenhouse gas) substance
6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Statistics from the Living Conditions Monitoring Survey of 2015 show that over 50% of the population live below the poverty line.
PMRC’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors.
® is a registered trademark.
PREPARED BY:
TECHNICAL REVIEW:
Albert Kasoma (Senior Researcher) with the support of Bernadette Deka Zulu (Executive
Director)
RESEARCH:
Salim Kaunda (Head of Research and Analysis)
EDITORIAL TEAM:
Brian Sambo Mwila (Communication Specialist) Layout and Design
Melody Simukali (Head of Communication and Grants) Editorial
CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE STRATEGIES FOR ZAMBIA –
ANALYSIS OF POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abbreviations and Acronyms 5
Executive Summary 6
Introduction 9
Background 10
Impact of Climate Change on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 11
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture 12
Average Annual Temperatures 13
Average Annual Precipitation 14
Policy Documents on Climate Change 15
The Paris Climate Change Agreement 15
Seventh National Development Plan (2017-2021) 16
National Agriculture Policy 2016 17
National Energy Policy 2008 18
National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES),2016 18
National Climate Change Response Strategy, 2010 20
National Climate Change Policy, 2016 21
National Policy on Environment, 2009 21
National Strategy for Reducing Emissions
(REDD+), 2015 22
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change, 2007 23
National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP), 2014-2018 23
National Forestry Policy, 2009 26
Presidential/ Ministerial Pronouncements 27
Why carbon tax should be rationalized across all sectors 28
Lessons from other countries 30
Recommendations 31
Conclusion 32
References 33
List of figures/table
Figure 1: Average Monthly Temperatures 14
Figure 2: Average Annual Precipitation 14
Figure 3: Estimates of GHG for Zambia ,1990-2015 29
Table 1: National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) Budget 25
PAGE
5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AR4 Fourth Assessment Report of IPCC
CA Conservation Agriculture
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO2eq CO2 equivalent (using the GWP-100 metric of AR4)
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
EDGAR Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GHG Green House Gas
GWO-100 Global Warming Potential over a 100 years period
JRC Joint Research Centre of the European Commission
Mt Megatonnes (106 tonnes or 1 tera gramme) mass of a given (greenhouse
gas) substance
n/a Not Available
NPCC National Policy on Climate Change
T Tonne (1 t or 1 mega gramme) mass of a given (greenhouse gas) substance
6
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Statistics from the Living Conditions Monitoring Survey of 2015 show that over 50% of the population live below the poverty line.
This vulnerable population does not have sufficient capacity to cope with, or adapt to the impacts of extreme weather events.
One of major contributors to extreme weather patterns has been deforestation.
The country’s forest cover has been lost due to massive deforestations with losses in excess of 79,000 hectares of forest cover per annum (Integrated Land Use
Assessment Report, 2016).
Source image: https://www.openzambia.com/lifestyle/2019/3/4/drought-hit-southern-province-receives-relief-food
7
To effectively cope with climate change, there is need to develop adaptation and mitigative measures to address climate change. At the national level, Government has developed national strategies and attempted to domesticate some international interventions.
Source image: https://www.openzambia.com/lifestyle/2019/3/4/drought-hit-southern-province-receives-relief-food
7
To effectively cope with climate change, there is need to develop adaptation and mitigative measures to address climate change. At the national level, Government has developed national strategies and attempted to domesticate some international interventions.
Key among the several noticeable strategies include the following; Climate Change Policy (2016); The Zambia’s National Climate Change Response Strategy (2010); National Policy on Environment (2009), National Strategy for
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) 2015 among others.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) 2015 among others.
This paper relied on desk review and key informant interviews to look at how the country has attempted to mainstream promotion of sustainable agriculture and climate smart agriculture in various policy documents.
At a global level Zambia is a signatory to the Paris Climate Change Agreement through the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) where countries have committed themselves to implement ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects while promoting sustainable development.
Source logo: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/
8
Recommendations
In order to encourage adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), due consideration needs to be given to the following recommendations;
• The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and other stakeholders need to upscale field schools among small scale farmers to effectively promote the adoption of climate of CSAs.
• MOA needs to adequately package Zambia Metrological Department (ZMD) information and distribute to those farmers that would be the most affected by crop failure and there is need to narrow the communication gap between
the ZMD and District authorities at different levels.
• Government through the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and MOA needs to provide tax incentives on all farming inputs that enhance CSA approaches such as subsidized organic fertilizers, zero tax rates on selected farm equipment and inclusion of starter packs for agroforestry. Both the Fertilizer Input Support Programme (FISP) and Agroforestry should have in-built incentive measures that award adopters.
• MOA needs to employ more extension staff to meet the recommended ratio of 400:1 farmer to one extension officer. Extension officers play a key role in training farmers on CSA practices and in building resilience against climate change effects.
• Successful adoption of CSAs such as Conservation Agriculture (CA) having been linked to land rights. In this vein the Government is urged to address the issue of land rights by improving the land titling procedure and waiting time.
• In all sustainable land approaches in the Agriculture sector, Government is urged to use the landscape approach that takes into account the multiple functions of land and other ecosystems. The approach ensures that the best
possible balance is achieved among a range of different development objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved
livelihoods.
• We urge Government to extend carbon tax to all other sectors that use fossil fuels as opposed to motor vehicle carbon tax only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation and adaptation. The resources realized from the tax can be utilized to promote Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and provision of relief food to families worst hit by the impacts of climate change.
8
Recommendations
In order to encourage adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), due consideration needs to be given to the following recommendations;
• The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and other stakeholders need to upscale field schools among small scale farmers to effectively promote the adoption of climate of CSAs.
• MOA needs to adequately package Zambia Metrological Department (ZMD) information and distribute to those farmers that would be the most affected by crop failure and there is need to narrow the communication gap between
the ZMD and District authorities at different levels.
• Government through the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and MOA needs to provide tax incentives on all farming inputs that enhance CSA approaches such as subsidized organic fertilizers, zero tax rates on selected farm equipment and inclusion of starter packs for agroforestry. Both the Fertilizer Input Support Programme (FISP) and Agroforestry should have in-built incentive measures that award adopters.
• MOA needs to employ more extension staff to meet the recommended ratio of 400:1 farmer to one extension officer. Extension officers play a key role in training farmers on CSA practices and in building resilience against climate change effects.
• Successful adoption of CSAs such as Conservation Agriculture (CA) having been linked to land rights. In this vein the Government is urged to address the issue of land rights by improving the land titling procedure and waiting time.
• In all sustainable land approaches in the Agriculture sector, Government is urged to use the landscape approach that takes into account the multiple functions of land and other ecosystems. The approach ensures that the best
possible balance is achieved among a range of different development objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved
livelihoods.
• We urge Government to extend carbon tax to all other sectors that use fossil fuels as opposed to motor vehicle carbon tax only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation and adaptation. The resources realized from the tax can be utilized to promote Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and provision of relief food to families worst hit by the impacts of climate change.
Carbon tax is a Pigovian tax since it returns the cost of global warming to their producers and can consequently reduce carbon emissions as a mitigative measure. Zambia can learn from South Africa who in May 2019 enacted a long-delayed carbon tax into law as one of the continent’s worst polluters.
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INTRODUCTION
Climate change refers to a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns and average temperatures. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air.
9
INTRODUCTION
Climate change refers to a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns and average temperatures. Since the mid-1800s, humans have contributed to the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the air.
This causes global temperatures to rise, resulting in long-term changes to the climate. Climatic hazards caused by climate change and extreme weather events are a threat to economic growth and development in the world and Zambia in particular.
Droughts and floods have, adversely impacted on food security, water, health, energy and the sustainable livelihoods of rural communities.
Source: https://sadcnews.org/2019/12/25/drought-left-zambia-and-zimbabwe-in-the-darkness/
Source: https://sadcnews.org/2019/12/25/drought-left-zambia-and-zimbabwe-in-the-darkness/
For the population living below the poverty line, they do not have sufficient capacity to cope with, or adapt to, the impacts of extreme weather events. Therefore, there is need to develop adaptation and mitigative measures to address climate change.
The global community and the Zambian Government in particular, has developed strategies and policies that present the bare minimum number of activities that must be implemented with urgency in order to enable vulnerable communities cope with the adverse effects of climate change.
The implementation of these activities has to some extent significantly reduced the negative impacts of climatic hazards on vulnerable communities and areas, and assured sustainable livelihood for these
communities.
communities.
These strategies range from Paris Climate Change Agreement and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at a global level, to other policies and strategies such as the National Policy on Climate Change, National Strategy for Reducing Emissions and Seventh National Development Plan
(7NDP) at the national level among others.
(7NDP) at the national level among others.
With such strategies and policies in place, there is need to further investigate and determine the extent to which these strategies and policies have been implemented and the extent to which vulnerable communities have developed resilience to climate change.
Research is crucial in order to synthesize climate change knowledge, impacts, and trends across Zambia and sectors to inform decision making and resilience-building activities across the country.
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BACKGROUND
Zambia’s population has been on the rise from 8 million in 1994 to 15.5 million in 2015 and projections point to 22 million by 2030.
10
BACKGROUND
Zambia’s population has been on the rise from 8 million in 1994 to 15.5 million in 2015 and projections point to 22 million by 2030.
The majority of this population is rural based with 58.2 % residing in the rural area1
.
Poverty levels are high and account for 54.4 % of Zambia’s population; The rural poverty is even worse at 76.6 % compared to 23.4 % in urban areas2
. The majority of the population depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agricultural activity is the main economic activity engaged in by 58.5 % of households which can further be broken down as 89.4 % of households in rural areas and 17.9 % in urban areas3
.
It must be noted, however, that Zambia’s climate has been highly variable over the last few decades characterized by a series of climatic extremes, e.g. droughts, seasonal floods and flash floods, extreme temperatures and dry spells, many of these with increased frequency, intensity and magnitude4
.
Temperatures have been on the rise while precipitation (rainfall) has dropped. Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.3°C since 1960, at an average rate of 0.29°C per decade. Daily temperature observations show significantly increasing trends in the frequency of hot days and nights in all seasons. Average annual rainfall over Zambia has decreased by an average rate of 1.9mm per month per decade since 1960 primarily due to rainfall decreases from December to February5
.
Evidence indicates that Zambia has contributed to climate change by her engagement in massive deforestation. Forests are important in absorbing carbon dioxide, which is a product of fossil fuel combustion and has been responsible for
1. Zambia Statistics Agency, 2015 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) (Lusaka,Zambia, 2015).
2. Zambia Statistics Agency.
3. Zambia Statistics Agency.
4. Suman Jain, An Empirical Economic Assessment of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Zambia, The World
Bank ,Development Research Group WPS4291, 2007.
5. Irish Aid-Resilience and Economic Inclusion Team, Zambia Climate Action Report for 2016, 2017.
8 MILLION
1994
PROJECTIONS
15.5 MILLION
2015
22 MILLION
2030
11
global climate change. The country’s forest cover is estimated at 45.9 million hectares or approximately about 60 % of the total landmass of Zambia. However, currently the country loses about 79,000 to 150,000 hectares of forests per year 6
.
In order to mitigate 7 and adapt 8 to effects of climate change, global and country level policy instruments have been developed to coordinate interventions.
.
Poverty levels are high and account for 54.4 % of Zambia’s population; The rural poverty is even worse at 76.6 % compared to 23.4 % in urban areas2
. The majority of the population depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agricultural activity is the main economic activity engaged in by 58.5 % of households which can further be broken down as 89.4 % of households in rural areas and 17.9 % in urban areas3
.
It must be noted, however, that Zambia’s climate has been highly variable over the last few decades characterized by a series of climatic extremes, e.g. droughts, seasonal floods and flash floods, extreme temperatures and dry spells, many of these with increased frequency, intensity and magnitude4
.
Temperatures have been on the rise while precipitation (rainfall) has dropped. Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.3°C since 1960, at an average rate of 0.29°C per decade. Daily temperature observations show significantly increasing trends in the frequency of hot days and nights in all seasons. Average annual rainfall over Zambia has decreased by an average rate of 1.9mm per month per decade since 1960 primarily due to rainfall decreases from December to February5
.
Evidence indicates that Zambia has contributed to climate change by her engagement in massive deforestation. Forests are important in absorbing carbon dioxide, which is a product of fossil fuel combustion and has been responsible for
1. Zambia Statistics Agency, 2015 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) (Lusaka,Zambia, 2015).
2. Zambia Statistics Agency.
3. Zambia Statistics Agency.
4. Suman Jain, An Empirical Economic Assessment of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Zambia, The World
Bank ,Development Research Group WPS4291, 2007.
5. Irish Aid-Resilience and Economic Inclusion Team, Zambia Climate Action Report for 2016, 2017.
8 MILLION
1994
PROJECTIONS
15.5 MILLION
2015
22 MILLION
2030
11
global climate change. The country’s forest cover is estimated at 45.9 million hectares or approximately about 60 % of the total landmass of Zambia. However, currently the country loses about 79,000 to 150,000 hectares of forests per year 6
.
In order to mitigate 7 and adapt 8 to effects of climate change, global and country level policy instruments have been developed to coordinate interventions.
Several of such policies in Zambia have focused on the promotion of climate smart agricultural practices (CSAs). While Zambia has been considered a leader in promoting Conservation Agriculture (CA) in Sub-Saharan Africa, adoption of the practice by smallholders has been generally low and characterized by partial adoption; as well
as high dis-adoption rates of up to 95% of farmers in some locations9.
as high dis-adoption rates of up to 95% of farmers in some locations9.
The Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP) acknowledges that the limited knowledge and capacity of farmers to maintain the practices after initial support, are some of the drivers of low adoption and high dis-adoption rates10. Additionally, farmers usually have to wait for multiple seasons to reap the benefits of the practice, and in some
land holdings, crop residues are valued more for animal feed rather than for soil cover, making the investment less attractive to smallholders.
land holdings, crop residues are valued more for animal feed rather than for soil cover, making the investment less attractive to smallholders.
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)
6. Forestry Department- Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Integrated Land Use Assessment Phase II, 2017.
7. Mitigation refers to efforts that seek to prevent or slow down the increase of atmospheric Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations by limiting current and future emissions and enhancing potential sinks for greenhouse gases
8. Adaptation refers to actions aimed at managing the known and unknown impacts of climate. This can be achieved by mainstreaming climate change adaptation at all levels to enhance the resilience of rural communities and ecosystems against climate shocks.
9. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia, Seventh National Development Plan -2017-2021.
10. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia.
11. Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Energy Sector Report for 2018.
12. Lusaka Times-Online Publication, ‘Current Load Shedding of 15 Hours to Remain – ZESCO’, Lusaka Times-Online
Publication, 30 October 2019 <https://www.lusakatimes.com/2019/10/30/current-load-shedding-of-15-hours-to-remain-zesco/>.
13. Alfred Mwila and others, Impact of Load Shedding on Small Scale Enterprises, Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Working
Paper (Lusaka, 2017).
14. Paul Samboko and others, The Impact of Power Rationing on Zambia’s Agricultural Sector, IAPRI Working Paper (Lusaka, 2016).
6. Forestry Department- Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Integrated Land Use Assessment Phase II, 2017.
7. Mitigation refers to efforts that seek to prevent or slow down the increase of atmospheric Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations by limiting current and future emissions and enhancing potential sinks for greenhouse gases
8. Adaptation refers to actions aimed at managing the known and unknown impacts of climate. This can be achieved by mainstreaming climate change adaptation at all levels to enhance the resilience of rural communities and ecosystems against climate shocks.
9. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia, Seventh National Development Plan -2017-2021.
10. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia.
11. Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Energy Sector Report for 2018.
12. Lusaka Times-Online Publication, ‘Current Load Shedding of 15 Hours to Remain – ZESCO’, Lusaka Times-Online
Publication, 30 October 2019 <https://www.lusakatimes.com/2019/10/30/current-load-shedding-of-15-hours-to-remain-zesco/>.
13. Alfred Mwila and others, Impact of Load Shedding on Small Scale Enterprises, Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Working
Paper (Lusaka, 2017).
14. Paul Samboko and others, The Impact of Power Rationing on Zambia’s Agricultural Sector, IAPRI Working Paper (Lusaka, 2016).
Climate change variation has led to reduced power generation due to changes in the hydrological cycle of most hydro power generation plants in Zambia which accounts for 82% of total installed generation capacity in Zambia11. The reduced power generation has had some adverse effects on the economy.
For instance, the country was forced to import power especially between 2014 to 2016. By November 2019, ZESCO had increased the extent of load shedding to fifteen (15) hours a day for the majority of its household, commercial and industrial consumers 12.
The economic impact has been severe, with key economic sectors such as mining, manufacturing and agricultural sectors scaling down production and employment, as the intensity of the blackouts increased and imported energy became expensive. During periods of prolonged load shedding even small enterprises resort to reducing their work
outputs resulting in reduced turnover whilst incurring additional costs such as idle labour and overtime. Some enterprises suffer losses due to equipment damage and high replacement costs
outputs resulting in reduced turnover whilst incurring additional costs such as idle labour and overtime. Some enterprises suffer losses due to equipment damage and high replacement costs
13. One estimate of the economy-wide effects indicate that economic losses were equivalent to around 18.8% of annual GDP of which 1.6 % was loss to the Agricultural GDP14 .
12
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE
Climate Change in Zambia has also negatively impacted the Zambian agricultural
sector vis-à-vis an increase in the incidence of hunger due to destruction of crops,
reduction in cultivatable land and increased soil erosion. On an economic outlook,
the production of staple crops which include maize, millet, sorghum and rice has
been dropping steadily in recent years.
According to the Crop Forecast for the 2018/19 Agriculture Season, Maize production
declined from 2,394,907 metric tonnes in 2017/18 farming season to 2,004,389
metric tonnes in 2018/19 accounting for 16% decline in production due to climate
change effects that led to prolonged dry spells15. Out of the total production of maize
small and medium scale farmers contributed 94.5% while large scale farmers took
up 5.5%16.
2,394,907
2,004,389
Metric tonnes in 2017/18
Metric tonnes in 2018/19
Maize production declined
Electricity is key to improving agriculture production, food security and boosting agribusinesses. Agriculture uses electricity to operate machinery and equipment, to heat or cool buildings, for lighting on the farm, for irrigation and indirectly in the production of fertilizers and other chemicals produced off the farm.
12
IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE
Climate Change in Zambia has also negatively impacted the Zambian agricultural
sector vis-à-vis an increase in the incidence of hunger due to destruction of crops,
reduction in cultivatable land and increased soil erosion. On an economic outlook,
the production of staple crops which include maize, millet, sorghum and rice has
been dropping steadily in recent years.
According to the Crop Forecast for the 2018/19 Agriculture Season, Maize production
declined from 2,394,907 metric tonnes in 2017/18 farming season to 2,004,389
metric tonnes in 2018/19 accounting for 16% decline in production due to climate
change effects that led to prolonged dry spells15. Out of the total production of maize
small and medium scale farmers contributed 94.5% while large scale farmers took
up 5.5%16.
2,394,907
2,004,389
Metric tonnes in 2017/18
Metric tonnes in 2018/19
Maize production declined
Electricity is key to improving agriculture production, food security and boosting agribusinesses. Agriculture uses electricity to operate machinery and equipment, to heat or cool buildings, for lighting on the farm, for irrigation and indirectly in the production of fertilizers and other chemicals produced off the farm.
The Seventh
National Development Plan (7NDP) indicates that most rural parts of Zambia have low access to electricity and have poor road networks to attract investment and contribute effectively to diversification and job creation, especially in the agriculture sector
National Development Plan (7NDP) indicates that most rural parts of Zambia have low access to electricity and have poor road networks to attract investment and contribute effectively to diversification and job creation, especially in the agriculture sector
17. The increased extent of load shedding to fifteen 15 hours a day is only worsening the state of vulnerability of rural farmers.
Farming has been highlighted as a significant contributor to climate change, but it has also been affected by negative effects such as the two main greenhouse gasses, methane and nitrous oxide, which are released in high amounts during crop and animal production. In aiming to reduce these greenhouse gasses, farmers need to
adopt farming practices that will not harm nature or negatively affect the climate.
These farming practices include Climate Smart Agriculture techniques such as
Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA is an approach which includes a set of practices
which conserve the soil, water, soil moisture, enhance fertilizer and seed use and in
turn saves money and time.
15. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season., 2019.
16. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season.
17. Ministry of National Development planning-Zambia.
13
When it comes to adaptation measures in the agricultural sector, since Climate
Change is already running its course, the Zambian Government is urged to encourage
more farmers to find means of improving sustainable agricultural practices. Data
from the 2015 national representative Rural Household Survey, conducted by IAPRI
found that only 8.8% of smallholder households adopted Conservation Agriculture
(CA) as a climate smart agriculture technique in the 2013/’14 farming season18.
The rates were however, slightly higher in areas that were affected by climate
change effects such as the Agro-Ecological Zone I and II, in the southern parts of
the country, where 11.7% of farmers adopted Conservation Agriculture as a climate
smart technique 19 .
Zambia’s Agro Ecological Zones
IIa
I
IIb
III
Average Annual Temperatures
The average number of ‘hot’ days per year in Zambia has increased by 43 (an
additional 11.8% of days) between 1960 and 2003.The frequency of cold days and
nights has decreased since 1960 in all seasons and the average number of ‘cold ‘days
per year has decreased by 22 (6% of days) between 1960 and 200320. Figure 1 shows
that the average temperature for each month in a calendar year has increased when
comparing periods 1960-1990 and 1991-2016.
18. Olipa Zulu-Mbata, Antony Chapoto, and Munguzwe Hichaambwa, What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among
Smallholder Farmers What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers in Zambia ?, Indaba
Agriculture Research Institute (IAPRI) Working Paper (Lusaka, 2018).
19. Zulu-Mbata, Chapoto, and Hichaambwa.
20. World Bank Group, ‘Climate Knowledge Portal.’, World Bank Group Web Page, 2019 <https://climateknowledgeportal.
worldbank.org/country/Zambia/climate-data-historical> [accessed 11 November 2019].
AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES
IIb (800 -1000mm
I (less than 800mm)
IIa (800-1000mm)
III (above 1000mm
14
Figure 1: Average monthly temperature
49 47 45 37 50 44 40
MONTHS
Source: generated using World Bank Group data, Climate Knowledge Portal. Available at <https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical>
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
23.55 23.77 23.64 22.36 20.89 11.44 17.9 20.48 23.68 25.6 25.37 24.04
22.88 22.95 22.88 21.88 12.35 17.35 17.07 18.45 22.9 24.66 24.21 23.13
KEY
1991 – 2016
1960 – 1990
Average Annual Precipitation
Mean annual rainfall over Zambia has decreased by an average rate of 1.9 mm per
month (2.3%) per decade since 1960. This is largely due to decreases in DecemberFebruary rainfall (or part of the wet season), which has decreased by 7.1 mm per
month (3.5%) per decade21.
Figure 2 indicates that the average monthly precipitation for the months of September,
October, November, December and February have reduced when comparing periods
1960-1990 and 1991-2016.
Figure 2: Average Annual Precipitation
KEY
Precipitation (mm) 1991 – 2016
Precipitation (mm) 1960 – 1990
MONTHS
Source: generated using World Bank Group data, Climate Knowledge Portal. Available at <https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical> PRECIPITATION (IN MM)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
222.5 180.5 155.5 39.54 4.1 0.2 0.06 0.1 3.2 23.0 107.9 204.2
221.8 197.3 153.7 51.7 5.8 0.4 0.09 0.2 4.0 32.2 111.9 223.5
AVERAGE TEMPERATURES
21. World Bank Group.
15
POLICY DOCUMENTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE
To lessen the impact of climate change on agricultural livelihoods, the Government of
the Republic of Zambia has put in measures as spelt out in several policy documents
with the aim of streamlining and promoting sustainable agriculture including Climate
Smart Agriculture (CSA) to guarantee livelihoods. Several interventions have been
spelt out in various policy documents, among others the following:
The Paris Climate Change Agreement
The Paris Agreement is the world’s first truly global plan
to address climate change. The UN climate agreement
was adopted at COP21 in 2015, demonstrating the world’s
collective willingness to take urgent action towards
climate change. The unprecedented pact urges nations
to pursue every effort to limit global temperature
increase to well below 2°C – and aiming for 1.5°C – to
stave off some of the worst impacts of climate change
on people’s livelihood including reduced agricultural
output22. The overwhelming evidence is that global
warming is mostly man-made – it is largely due to
burning fossil fuels and large-scale deforestation – it
is not a natural process.
President Edgar Chagwa Lungu signed the Paris
Agreement on Climate Change during the UN Treaty
Signing Event at the United Nations General Assembly
in New York USA on Tuesday 20 September 201623
.However, much more needs to be done, to domesticate
many more provisions of the Paris Climate Change
agreement to effectively contribute to the reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions and limit the global
temperature increase to below 2 degrees Celsius.
22. United Nations (UN), ‘Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.’, United Nations Web Page, 2016 <https://
www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/> [accessed 12 November 2019].
23. National Assembly of Zambia, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by
President Edgar Lungu, 2019.
16
Seventh National Development Plan (2017-2021)
Zambia has taken several steps to integrate issues of climate change and
agriculture into national development planning by ensuring that sustainable
agricultural practices such as Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices form part
of the country’s national adaptation goals and commitments.
In an effort to adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change on the agriculture
sector, the Government through the Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP)
intends to promote the adoption of agricultural environment-friendly practices
(climate smart and organic techniques) such as conservation farming, crop
rotation, less use of chemical fertilizer and creating public awareness on
the adverse effects of climate change24.In the 2020 budget presentation, the
Government intends to zero rate VAT on the importation of equipment to be used in
the manufacturing of organic fertilizers25. Use of organic fertilizer is climate smart
and helps to eliminate soil and water contamination from artificial fertilizers.
In addition, the 7NDP recognizes that “organic crops advantages” including the
currently low use of chemical fertilizer will allow Zambia to leapfrog to high
productive organic fertilizer use and techniques, which receive a premium price
on the world market. This will create local value addition in organic fertilizer
production, increase organic crop export revenues and reduce the import bill from
chemical fertilizers.
24. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia.
25. National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the
National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019, 2019.
17
National Agriculture Policy 2016
One of the objectives of the Second National Agricultural policy26 of Zambia is to
mainstream all issues of the environment and climate change into the agriculture
sector. Some of the measures put in place to achieve this include;
1. Promoting and strengthening agricultural production methods that are
resilient to climate change.
2. Promoting awareness on Climate Change adaptation.
3. Integrate Climate Change adoption measures in plans and programmes.
4. Promote environmentally friendly and climate-smart farming systems.
5. Promote weather-based insurance schemes especially among small holder
farmers.
To promote adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), farmers accessing the
Government supported Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) are required to
practice conservation farming as a prerequisite for access to inputs. However,
it has been noted that the enforcement of such provisions has been weak,
as the prominent requirement for one to access FISP is the aspect of being
vulnerable but viable as ascertained by the Agricultural Camp Committees.
FISP administration has evolved over time with the introduction at a large scale
of the Electronic FISP27 in the 2017/2018 farming season. The implementation of
electronic FISP has at least given farmers a broad choice of inputs to choose from
including climate smart agricultural inputs such as early maturing seeds.
The policy recognizes and promotes the need for CSA practices for livestock
mainly focusing on manure, pasture, grazing and forage management; livestock
integration into cropping systems; integration of agroforestry into crop-livestock
production systems; and improved housing and feeding practices28.
26. Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Second National Agricultural Policy (Lusaka,Zambia:
Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 2016).
27. Electronic FISP relies on the use of electronic card/vouchers by the by farmers to access farm inputs such as seed and
fertilizer from agro-dealers.
28. Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock.
18
National Energy Policy 2008
The National Energy Policy seeks to promote the cross sectoral linkages between
the energy sector and other key social and economic sectors such as agriculture,
trade industry, transport, information and communications technology, health
and education among other sectors.
To promote sustainable agriculture, the policy focuses on the development of
biomass energy technologies, and providing agriculture support to farmers
wishing to grow energy crops such as jatropha, sugarcane and sweet sorghum29.
The policy further advocates for the establishment of a coordinating mechanism
between institutions responsible for energy, agriculture and forestry; to agree on
land expansion for agriculture.
To ensure better management of woodlands and forests as sustainable sources
of wood fuel, the policy advocates for supply of modern energy sources to small
rural farmers and thereby increase the productivity of existing crop-land and
reducing the need to engage in slash and burn agriculture, one of the sources of
deforestation30.
National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES),2016
The National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES) for 2016-2020
commits to support of smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate change through
irrigation, diversification, and agrometeorological information, but also specifically
mentions the need to promote climate change mitigation practices such as
agroforestry, manure management and bioenergy31.
The strategy also looks at plans to strengthen agricultural extension service delivery
by advocating for improvement of the efficiency and effectiveness of the existing
extension staff, and promoting private extension service provision to supplement
public extension system. Given that the agriculture sector has wide variation in
extension approaches and service delivery, especially with the coming on-board of
private extension services, it is prudent to strengthen communication, coordination
and collaboration among extension service providers.
The strategy indicates that agricultural extension and advisory services shall focus
on three specific adaptation measures32 in addressing the effects of climate change
as follows:
29. Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia, National Energy Policy.
30. Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia.
31. Jain.
32. Ministry of Agriculture, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS), 2016.
Three specific adaptation measures on next page
19
33. Ministry of Agriculture, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS).
1. Short-term solutions for adapting crops, fish and livestock production include
dissemination of messages that promote improved water irrigation systems,
more efficient water use, soil management, soil protection, pest management,
fertilization and shade management. Other Solutions include promotion of
supplementary feeding of fish and livestock, improved pasture management
and provision of veterinary services closer to the farming families.
2. Measures to reduce greenhouse gases would be encouraged through promotion
of forestation/reforestation, mulching techniques, organic production and
utilization of waste materials/ bio-energy.
3. Long-term strategies will include dissemination of extension messages for
diversification of incomes, use of new and improved production techniques,
use of improved varieties and species and preservation of genetic diversity33.
This shall be concurrent with deliberate efforts to improve access to climate
data, linking of small-scale farmers to carbon markets as well as linkage of
organizations with external financing.
20
34. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS)
(Lusaka, 2010).
35. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS).
National Climate Change Response Strategy, 2010
Zambia’s National Climate Change Response Strategy (2010) takes a sectoral
approach to addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation, focusing on
investments in sustainable land use (agriculture and forestry sectors), early
warning, and agro-climatic information34.
The strategy was pivotal in advocating for the development of an appropriate
climate change governance (policy, legal and institutional) framework including
main-streaming climate change in all the key sectors of the economy.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the
overarching international agreement instituted to address anthropogenic (manmade) climate change. The main objective of the UNFCCC is outlined in its Article 2,
which is to stabilize Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere to
a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system.
The National Climate Change Response Strategy35 looked at the need to develop
sustainable land use systems to enhance agricultural production and ensure food
security under the changing climate through:
1. Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction
The aim is to ensure that the most climate-sensitive sectors are protected from the
impacts of climate change by putting in place climate-resilient adaptation actions
and ensuring that Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is mainstreamed in all sectors of
the economy.
2. Mitigation and Low Carbon Development
The aim is to ensure that mitigation actions are implemented in the most GHGintensive sectors of land-use (agriculture and forestry), energy, transport and
mining, and development proceeds using low carbon pathways.
21
National Climate Change Policy, 2016
The overall objective of the National Climate Change policy is to provide a framework
for coordinating climate change programmes in order to ensure climate resilient
and low carbon development pathways for sustainable development towards the
attainment of Zambia’s Vision 203036.
This policy outlines the measures that will be implemented in order to achieve
the objectives of ensuring that country adapts and mitigates against the effects
of climate change. Among other measures targeting the agriculture sector, is
the emphasis on the promotion and adoption of appropriate Climate Smart
Agricultural (CSA) technologies for different agro-ecological zones as well as the
promotion of landscape-based livelihood diversification.
36. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia, National Policy on Climate Change (Lusaka,Zambia, 2016).
37. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia.
38. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia.
National Policy on Environment, 2009
The policy serves to enhance efforts by Government institutions to protect,
safeguard the natural resources and environment and ultimately improve public
health in the country.
As a linkage to the agriculture sector, the policy promotes environmentally
sound agricultural development by promoting sustainable crop and livestock
production through ecologically appropriate production, management techniques
and appropriate legal and institutional framework for sustainable environmental
management37. Furthermore, the policy recognizes that conservation of
biodiversity both within and outside protected areas are critical to environmental
sustainability together with other policies such as the Land Use Policy and
Sustainable Agriculture policies.
The policy also advocates for strengthening of the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry
of Lands Natural Resources and the office of the Commissioner of Lands in order
to cater for improved land use and compliance of the lease covenants relating to
good land husbandry practices and land tenure issues38.
22
National Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD+), 2015
Climate change exacerbated by increased emissions is known and already manifested
as a development challenge in Zambia, affecting the productivity of key economic
sectors of the Zambian economy such as agriculture. The REDD+ Strategy39
advocates for interventions that addresses the need for agricultural intensification
leading to reduced frequency of clearance of forests for increased agricultural
productivity through:
• The collaboration and coordination between the Forestry Department and the
Department of Agriculture leading to staff being trained in farming systems
diagnosis for selecting areas for specific agricultural intensification practices.
• The Forestry Department playing a critical role in the establishment of
community nurseries and conducting extension services for appropriate on-farm
agroforestry tree species and technologies for agricultural intensification; and
• Implementing appropriate Climate Smart Agriculture(CSA) demonstrations to
improve adoption in the target areas.
The REDD+ Strategy also acknowledges that the proximate drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation in Zambia are specific to its forestry, agriculture, energy,
mining, and land use (infrastructure development) sectors. For the agriculture sector,
the drivers have been categorized as follows;
• Extensive and unsustainable crop production practices
• Poor livestock management practices
• Agro-processing reliance on wood fuel
• Lack of incentives for agricultural intensification
• Use of fire for land preparation
The REDD+ strategy therefore promotes key elements of CSA approaches such as
zero-or minimum-tillage (reduced emissions from soil), spot planting and other
techniques that aim at improving soil fertility, water use efficiency and efficient
cycling of organic matter from crop residues into the soil; effectively reducing
deforestation.
The strategy also advocates for landscape approaches at watershed level and
through policy reforms at national level. Landscape approaches take into account
all land uses in a holistic way (including water and wildlife) and works to lessen the
competition for natural resources among different sectors. The approach ensures
that the best possible balance is achieved among a range of different development
objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and
biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved livelihoods.
39. Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection & Forestry Department, Zambia National Strategy
to Reduce Emmisions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation., 2015.
23
40. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Adaptation Programme, 2007.
41. Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) 2014-2018, 2014.
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change, 2007
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change recognizes that
Region I of the Zambian agro-ecological zones is extremely vulnerable to climate
change, followed by Region II in terms of arable cropping40. Hence planning for
climate change in these two regions is definitely a necessity. NAPA indicate that
results from crop production, suggested that key varieties, particularly maize, would
not mature due to shortening of the growing season in agro-ecological Regions
I and II, respectively, undermining food security in the two regions. NAPA further
acknowledges that the southern part of Zambia is drought-prone.
NAPA proposes the following adaptation measures in the agriculture sector.
• Production of cereals, legumes, root and tuber crops, and horticultural crops
including promotion of early maturing/drought resistance crops;
• Promotion of irrigation and efficient use of water resources;
• Water harvesting; and
• Use of technologies for fertility improvement and moisture storage (including
soil conservation measures.
National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP), 2014-2018
The National Agriculture Investment Plan promotes sustainable use of natural
resources through the Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources Programme.
The key objective of the programme was to create and enhance the sustainable use
and maintenance of the existing agricultural resource base to efficiently support
vibrant and resilient agricultural production systems. These include land-use
planning, improving land use planning, and reducing land degradation in priority
catchments. Forestry Management was to target reduction in deforestation due to
shifting cultivation and agriculture extensification41.
NAIP further advocated for the promotion of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) which
addresses a number of challenges, including: low levels of improved input adoption;
poor response to fertilizer use due to high soil acidity, and; low adoption rates of
Conservation Agriculture (CA) as these are all embedded in Good Agricultural
Practices.
NAIP also recognized limited availability of extension services to farmers. At the time
of developing the NAIP, Principle Methodology Extension Officers estimates indicated
that the extension officer to farmer ratio in Zambia was only 1:900. This far exceeded
the recommended level of 1:400. Moreover, a World Bank Report of 2010 estimated
24
that Agricultural Officers spend 75 to 80% of their time dealing with FISP logistics
between August and January. This leaves very little time for them to dedicate to their
core work of providing extension advice to farmers especially advice on the need to
adopt CSA practices aimed at building resilience against climate change.
NAIP advocated for the development and piloting use of renewable (bio-energy)
options for smallholders such as mini biogas plants using manure.
NAIP BUDGET TABLE ON
NEXT PAGE
25
Programme Implementation Period (years) Total Source of Funding
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 GRZ/CP Farmers Private Sector
Crops Production and
Productivity 180.30 180.39 180.54 155.44 156.01 852.68 379.12 319.25 154.30
Livestock production
and productivity 68.51 75.17 81.45 69.96 59.16 354.25 331.6 20.19 2.00
Aquaculture Production
and Production 12.89 11.57 10.79 10.21 6.09 51.57 45.58 1.93 4.06
Market Access and
Services Development 19.62 55.82 99.70 23.23 58.80 257.21 209.73 11.48 35.99
Food and Nutrition
Security and Disaster
Management
110.13 137.27 137.80 137.49 137.17 659.86 640.71 19.15 0.00
Sustainable Support
Resources Management 39;15 62.43 66.77 62.24 50.22 280.80 259.79 19.66 1.35
Knowledge Support
System 49.91 69.00 50.38 41.79 43.39 254.48 254.48 0.00 0.00
Institutional
Strengthening 7.86 5.09 2.60 2.032.28 19.86 19.86 19.86 0.00 0.00
Total 488.37 596.02 630.02 503.02 513.13 2730.69 2141.33 391.67 197.70
Table 1: NAIP Budget (US $Million) by Programme, year and Financier 2014 – 2018
Source: NAIP,2016
The figures above shows the NAIP budget for the years 2014-2018. A considerably high amount of US $280million was budgeted for
the Sustainable Natural Resources Management Programme which included components that covered promotion of CSA approaches.
Since NAIP came to an end in 2018, there is need to review the performance NAIP before developing the successor programme which
is long overdue.
26
National Forestry Policy, 2009
Zambia’s abundant forest resources are threatened due to unsustainable harvesting
practices and competition for forest land for agriculture, settlements, mining, and
other land uses. Estimates by Integrated Land Use Assessment (ILUA) have shown
that the deforestation rate is between 75,000 to 150,000 hectares per annum which
is attributable primarily to agriculture expansion into the forested land.
Erosion
Deforestation Temperature
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Permanent land use changes, driven by low crop productivity in crop lands under
subsistence agriculture, and a combination of factors have therefore been the
major cause of deforestation. The National Forestry Policy42 advocates for the
following strategies to promote sustainable agricultural practices;
1. Promotion of a land-use system that ensures the protection of headwaters,
river basins and terrestrial resources
2. Facilitating sufficient and sustainable allocation of land between major
competing uses and sectors such as agriculture, energy and mining
3. Developing a management system that promotes the functional role of forestry
in maintaining ecological and climatic functions.
42. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Forestry Policy (Lusaka, 2009).
27
Presidential/ Ministerial Pronouncements
During the official opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly
in 2019, President Lungu advocated for the promotion of climate smart agricultural
practices which are poised at improving agricultural production and productivity.
The President indicated that Government was promoting climate resilient food
crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava and yams – these crops are not only
resilient to adverse weather conditions, but are also nutritious. The President
encouraged every Zambian to engage in some form of agriculture because of its
key role in guaranteeing national food security. In an effort to reduce dependency
on rain-fed agriculture, the President also indicated that Government working with
Cooperating Partners had up-scaled irrigation development projects; with dams
being constructed across the country with a total capacity of eight million cubic
meters43.
Minister of Finance, Bwalya Ng’andu in his 2020 Budget Address44 to Parliament
indicated that climate change related challenges required the adoption of climate
smart agricultural technologies and practices. The Minister also indicated that
Government was going to build capacity of the Zambia Meteorological Department
(ZMD) to improve early warning systems.
Literature indicates that information on climate patterns is processed at the ZMD
that could contribute to adaptation, especially in the agricultural sector. However,
this information is not adequately packaged and distributed to those farmers that
would be the most affected by crop failure. It has been noted that such information
stays at higher levels and does not reach grass root where it is really needed.
There is a communication gap between the Zambia Meteorological Department
and District authorities at different levels
43. National Assembly of Zambia, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by
President Edgar Lungu.
44. National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the
National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019.
28
Why carbon tax should be rationalized across all sectors
Figure 3 on the next page45 shows that Green House Gas (GHG) emissions in Zambia
have increased by 124 % from 14.463 Megatons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent
in 1990 to 32.392 Megatons of CO2 equivalent in 2015 46.
United States of America International Development (USAID)47 analysis indicates
that the largest contribution to GHG emissions in Zambia came from land use
change and forestry, which accounted for 73.7% followed by agriculture at 18.9%.
Energy contributed 4.8% followed by industrial processes and waste at 1.8% and
0.8%, respectively.
Chinese firms operating in Zambia
that have invested in various sectors
of the economy
500 CO2
32.392
Megatons of CO2
in 2015 from
14,463 Megatons of CO2
in 1990.
Agriculture Energy
Land use change Forestry
45. The estimates are based on Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
adopted by annual Conference of Parties (COP 2014) since year 2015
46. M. Crippa and others, Fossil Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions of All World Countries Contact Information (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2019) <https://doi.org/10.2760/687800>.
47. United States of America International Development (USAID), ‘Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Zambia’, 2015 <www.
climatelinks.org/resources/greenhouse-gas-emissions-factsheet-zambia> [accessed 11 November 2019].
29
Year Mt CO2
/yr GHG: Mt CO2
eq/yr t CO2
/cap/yr GHG: t CO2
eq/cap/yr t CO2
/kUSD/yr
2018 11.768 N/A 0.407 N/A 0.181
2015 14.287 32.392 0.531 1.203 0.173
2005 21.777 38.367 1.058 1.864 0.255
1990 6.887 12.463 0.571 1.200 0.172
Source; M. Crippa and others,2019
Source on icons: https://www.freepik.com
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2210
2012
2014
2015
Mt CO2eq/yr
t CO2eq/cap/year, t CO2eq/kUSD GDP/year
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Power
Industry
2018 Vs 1990 (CO2
)
+149% +212% -3%
+164% +229% -58%
+361% +412% -53%
-33%
+336%
-24%
+162%
-45%
+11%
2015 Vs 1990 (GHG) 2015 Vs 2005 (GHG)
Other Industrial
Combustion
Transport
Buildings
CH4
CO2
eq/cap CO2eq/GDP
Greenhouse gas emissions
Figure 3: Estimates of GHG for Zambia ,1990-2015
N2O F-gases CO2
Other Sectors
30
Zambia should consider the imposition of a carbon tax across all sector as opposed to
the motor vehicle carbon tax only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation
and adaptation. Carbon tax is a Pigovian tax since it returns the cost of global
warming to their producers and can consequently reduce carbon emissions as a
mitigative measure. Resources realized from the carbon taxes can be channelled to
adaptive measures such as investments into climate smart agriculture practices
and distribution of relief foods to areas affected by climate change. Zambia can
learn from South Africa who in May 2019 enacted a long-delayed carbon tax into law
as one of the continent’s worst polluters.
LESSONS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES
Tanzania
For successful implementation of Conservation Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices
to occur, Tanzania used a participatory dissemination method involving farmers in
problem analysis, setting extension priorities, planning and obtaining feedback from
them. The community involvement in planning through demonstration plots and field
schools provided a platform for farmers’ participation and feedback48. The Himo
Environmental Management (HEM) project successfully used community participation
integrated in the village local Government through formation of village committees
to sensitize, raise awareness, convincing farmers, train, plan, and implement
Conservation Agriculture (CA) and erosion control49. The village committee members
that include village leaders and Government extension staff, and the strength of
leadership were considered key in success of HEM project in Tanzania.
Kagera River Basic (Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania)
Another success story in the implementation of substantiable agriculture is the
Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Project for the Kagera River Basin.
The goal of the project which was administered by Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), was to adopt an integrated ecosystem approach for the management of land
resources in the Kagera River Basin50. The Basin is shared by Burundi, Rwanda,
Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. Through a landscape approach the
project helped restore degraded lands, adapt to climate change and promoted
agricultural biodiversity in a sustainable way while improving agricultural production,
rural livelihoods and food security. One of the farmers living in Kiruhura District
in Uganda was inspired to take on the new way of herd management to improve
his income after being introduced to better farming methods that enabled him to
keep a small, high productivity herd while combining this activity with agricultural
cultivations.
Farming has been highlighted as a significant contributor to climate change, but it has also been affected by negative effects such as the two main greenhouse gasses, methane and nitrous oxide, which are released in high amounts during crop and animal production. In aiming to reduce these greenhouse gasses, farmers need to
adopt farming practices that will not harm nature or negatively affect the climate.
These farming practices include Climate Smart Agriculture techniques such as
Conservation Agriculture (CA). CA is an approach which includes a set of practices
which conserve the soil, water, soil moisture, enhance fertilizer and seed use and in
turn saves money and time.
15. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season., 2019.
16. Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season.
17. Ministry of National Development planning-Zambia.
13
When it comes to adaptation measures in the agricultural sector, since Climate
Change is already running its course, the Zambian Government is urged to encourage
more farmers to find means of improving sustainable agricultural practices. Data
from the 2015 national representative Rural Household Survey, conducted by IAPRI
found that only 8.8% of smallholder households adopted Conservation Agriculture
(CA) as a climate smart agriculture technique in the 2013/’14 farming season18.
The rates were however, slightly higher in areas that were affected by climate
change effects such as the Agro-Ecological Zone I and II, in the southern parts of
the country, where 11.7% of farmers adopted Conservation Agriculture as a climate
smart technique 19 .
Zambia’s Agro Ecological Zones
IIa
I
IIb
III
Average Annual Temperatures
The average number of ‘hot’ days per year in Zambia has increased by 43 (an
additional 11.8% of days) between 1960 and 2003.The frequency of cold days and
nights has decreased since 1960 in all seasons and the average number of ‘cold ‘days
per year has decreased by 22 (6% of days) between 1960 and 200320. Figure 1 shows
that the average temperature for each month in a calendar year has increased when
comparing periods 1960-1990 and 1991-2016.
18. Olipa Zulu-Mbata, Antony Chapoto, and Munguzwe Hichaambwa, What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among
Smallholder Farmers What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers in Zambia ?, Indaba
Agriculture Research Institute (IAPRI) Working Paper (Lusaka, 2018).
19. Zulu-Mbata, Chapoto, and Hichaambwa.
20. World Bank Group, ‘Climate Knowledge Portal.’, World Bank Group Web Page, 2019 <https://climateknowledgeportal.
worldbank.org/country/Zambia/climate-data-historical> [accessed 11 November 2019].
AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES
IIb (800 -1000mm
I (less than 800mm)
IIa (800-1000mm)
III (above 1000mm
14
Figure 1: Average monthly temperature
49 47 45 37 50 44 40
MONTHS
Source: generated using World Bank Group data, Climate Knowledge Portal. Available at <https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical>
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
23.55 23.77 23.64 22.36 20.89 11.44 17.9 20.48 23.68 25.6 25.37 24.04
22.88 22.95 22.88 21.88 12.35 17.35 17.07 18.45 22.9 24.66 24.21 23.13
KEY
1991 – 2016
1960 – 1990
Average Annual Precipitation
Mean annual rainfall over Zambia has decreased by an average rate of 1.9 mm per
month (2.3%) per decade since 1960. This is largely due to decreases in DecemberFebruary rainfall (or part of the wet season), which has decreased by 7.1 mm per
month (3.5%) per decade21.
Figure 2 indicates that the average monthly precipitation for the months of September,
October, November, December and February have reduced when comparing periods
1960-1990 and 1991-2016.
Figure 2: Average Annual Precipitation
KEY
Precipitation (mm) 1991 – 2016
Precipitation (mm) 1960 – 1990
MONTHS
Source: generated using World Bank Group data, Climate Knowledge Portal. Available at <https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical> PRECIPITATION (IN MM)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
222.5 180.5 155.5 39.54 4.1 0.2 0.06 0.1 3.2 23.0 107.9 204.2
221.8 197.3 153.7 51.7 5.8 0.4 0.09 0.2 4.0 32.2 111.9 223.5
AVERAGE TEMPERATURES
21. World Bank Group.
15
POLICY DOCUMENTS ON CLIMATE CHANGE
To lessen the impact of climate change on agricultural livelihoods, the Government of
the Republic of Zambia has put in measures as spelt out in several policy documents
with the aim of streamlining and promoting sustainable agriculture including Climate
Smart Agriculture (CSA) to guarantee livelihoods. Several interventions have been
spelt out in various policy documents, among others the following:
The Paris Climate Change Agreement
The Paris Agreement is the world’s first truly global plan
to address climate change. The UN climate agreement
was adopted at COP21 in 2015, demonstrating the world’s
collective willingness to take urgent action towards
climate change. The unprecedented pact urges nations
to pursue every effort to limit global temperature
increase to well below 2°C – and aiming for 1.5°C – to
stave off some of the worst impacts of climate change
on people’s livelihood including reduced agricultural
output22. The overwhelming evidence is that global
warming is mostly man-made – it is largely due to
burning fossil fuels and large-scale deforestation – it
is not a natural process.
President Edgar Chagwa Lungu signed the Paris
Agreement on Climate Change during the UN Treaty
Signing Event at the United Nations General Assembly
in New York USA on Tuesday 20 September 201623
.However, much more needs to be done, to domesticate
many more provisions of the Paris Climate Change
agreement to effectively contribute to the reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions and limit the global
temperature increase to below 2 degrees Celsius.
22. United Nations (UN), ‘Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.’, United Nations Web Page, 2016 <https://
www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/> [accessed 12 November 2019].
23. National Assembly of Zambia, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by
President Edgar Lungu, 2019.
16
Seventh National Development Plan (2017-2021)
Zambia has taken several steps to integrate issues of climate change and
agriculture into national development planning by ensuring that sustainable
agricultural practices such as Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices form part
of the country’s national adaptation goals and commitments.
In an effort to adapt and mitigate the effects of climate change on the agriculture
sector, the Government through the Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP)
intends to promote the adoption of agricultural environment-friendly practices
(climate smart and organic techniques) such as conservation farming, crop
rotation, less use of chemical fertilizer and creating public awareness on
the adverse effects of climate change24.In the 2020 budget presentation, the
Government intends to zero rate VAT on the importation of equipment to be used in
the manufacturing of organic fertilizers25. Use of organic fertilizer is climate smart
and helps to eliminate soil and water contamination from artificial fertilizers.
In addition, the 7NDP recognizes that “organic crops advantages” including the
currently low use of chemical fertilizer will allow Zambia to leapfrog to high
productive organic fertilizer use and techniques, which receive a premium price
on the world market. This will create local value addition in organic fertilizer
production, increase organic crop export revenues and reduce the import bill from
chemical fertilizers.
24. Ministry of National Development Planning-Zambia.
25. National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the
National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019, 2019.
17
National Agriculture Policy 2016
One of the objectives of the Second National Agricultural policy26 of Zambia is to
mainstream all issues of the environment and climate change into the agriculture
sector. Some of the measures put in place to achieve this include;
1. Promoting and strengthening agricultural production methods that are
resilient to climate change.
2. Promoting awareness on Climate Change adaptation.
3. Integrate Climate Change adoption measures in plans and programmes.
4. Promote environmentally friendly and climate-smart farming systems.
5. Promote weather-based insurance schemes especially among small holder
farmers.
To promote adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), farmers accessing the
Government supported Farmer Input Support Program (FISP) are required to
practice conservation farming as a prerequisite for access to inputs. However,
it has been noted that the enforcement of such provisions has been weak,
as the prominent requirement for one to access FISP is the aspect of being
vulnerable but viable as ascertained by the Agricultural Camp Committees.
FISP administration has evolved over time with the introduction at a large scale
of the Electronic FISP27 in the 2017/2018 farming season. The implementation of
electronic FISP has at least given farmers a broad choice of inputs to choose from
including climate smart agricultural inputs such as early maturing seeds.
The policy recognizes and promotes the need for CSA practices for livestock
mainly focusing on manure, pasture, grazing and forage management; livestock
integration into cropping systems; integration of agroforestry into crop-livestock
production systems; and improved housing and feeding practices28.
26. Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Second National Agricultural Policy (Lusaka,Zambia:
Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 2016).
27. Electronic FISP relies on the use of electronic card/vouchers by the by farmers to access farm inputs such as seed and
fertilizer from agro-dealers.
28. Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock.
18
National Energy Policy 2008
The National Energy Policy seeks to promote the cross sectoral linkages between
the energy sector and other key social and economic sectors such as agriculture,
trade industry, transport, information and communications technology, health
and education among other sectors.
To promote sustainable agriculture, the policy focuses on the development of
biomass energy technologies, and providing agriculture support to farmers
wishing to grow energy crops such as jatropha, sugarcane and sweet sorghum29.
The policy further advocates for the establishment of a coordinating mechanism
between institutions responsible for energy, agriculture and forestry; to agree on
land expansion for agriculture.
To ensure better management of woodlands and forests as sustainable sources
of wood fuel, the policy advocates for supply of modern energy sources to small
rural farmers and thereby increase the productivity of existing crop-land and
reducing the need to engage in slash and burn agriculture, one of the sources of
deforestation30.
National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES),2016
The National Agricultural Advisory and Extension Strategy (NAAES) for 2016-2020
commits to support of smallholder farmers’ adaptation to climate change through
irrigation, diversification, and agrometeorological information, but also specifically
mentions the need to promote climate change mitigation practices such as
agroforestry, manure management and bioenergy31.
The strategy also looks at plans to strengthen agricultural extension service delivery
by advocating for improvement of the efficiency and effectiveness of the existing
extension staff, and promoting private extension service provision to supplement
public extension system. Given that the agriculture sector has wide variation in
extension approaches and service delivery, especially with the coming on-board of
private extension services, it is prudent to strengthen communication, coordination
and collaboration among extension service providers.
The strategy indicates that agricultural extension and advisory services shall focus
on three specific adaptation measures32 in addressing the effects of climate change
as follows:
29. Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia, National Energy Policy.
30. Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia.
31. Jain.
32. Ministry of Agriculture, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS), 2016.
Three specific adaptation measures on next page
19
33. Ministry of Agriculture, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS).
1. Short-term solutions for adapting crops, fish and livestock production include
dissemination of messages that promote improved water irrigation systems,
more efficient water use, soil management, soil protection, pest management,
fertilization and shade management. Other Solutions include promotion of
supplementary feeding of fish and livestock, improved pasture management
and provision of veterinary services closer to the farming families.
2. Measures to reduce greenhouse gases would be encouraged through promotion
of forestation/reforestation, mulching techniques, organic production and
utilization of waste materials/ bio-energy.
3. Long-term strategies will include dissemination of extension messages for
diversification of incomes, use of new and improved production techniques,
use of improved varieties and species and preservation of genetic diversity33.
This shall be concurrent with deliberate efforts to improve access to climate
data, linking of small-scale farmers to carbon markets as well as linkage of
organizations with external financing.
20
34. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS)
(Lusaka, 2010).
35. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS).
National Climate Change Response Strategy, 2010
Zambia’s National Climate Change Response Strategy (2010) takes a sectoral
approach to addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation, focusing on
investments in sustainable land use (agriculture and forestry sectors), early
warning, and agro-climatic information34.
The strategy was pivotal in advocating for the development of an appropriate
climate change governance (policy, legal and institutional) framework including
main-streaming climate change in all the key sectors of the economy.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the
overarching international agreement instituted to address anthropogenic (manmade) climate change. The main objective of the UNFCCC is outlined in its Article 2,
which is to stabilize Green House Gases (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere to
a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system.
The National Climate Change Response Strategy35 looked at the need to develop
sustainable land use systems to enhance agricultural production and ensure food
security under the changing climate through:
1. Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction
The aim is to ensure that the most climate-sensitive sectors are protected from the
impacts of climate change by putting in place climate-resilient adaptation actions
and ensuring that Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is mainstreamed in all sectors of
the economy.
2. Mitigation and Low Carbon Development
The aim is to ensure that mitigation actions are implemented in the most GHGintensive sectors of land-use (agriculture and forestry), energy, transport and
mining, and development proceeds using low carbon pathways.
21
National Climate Change Policy, 2016
The overall objective of the National Climate Change policy is to provide a framework
for coordinating climate change programmes in order to ensure climate resilient
and low carbon development pathways for sustainable development towards the
attainment of Zambia’s Vision 203036.
This policy outlines the measures that will be implemented in order to achieve
the objectives of ensuring that country adapts and mitigates against the effects
of climate change. Among other measures targeting the agriculture sector, is
the emphasis on the promotion and adoption of appropriate Climate Smart
Agricultural (CSA) technologies for different agro-ecological zones as well as the
promotion of landscape-based livelihood diversification.
36. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia, National Policy on Climate Change (Lusaka,Zambia, 2016).
37. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia.
38. Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection –
Government of Republic of Zambia.
National Policy on Environment, 2009
The policy serves to enhance efforts by Government institutions to protect,
safeguard the natural resources and environment and ultimately improve public
health in the country.
As a linkage to the agriculture sector, the policy promotes environmentally
sound agricultural development by promoting sustainable crop and livestock
production through ecologically appropriate production, management techniques
and appropriate legal and institutional framework for sustainable environmental
management37. Furthermore, the policy recognizes that conservation of
biodiversity both within and outside protected areas are critical to environmental
sustainability together with other policies such as the Land Use Policy and
Sustainable Agriculture policies.
The policy also advocates for strengthening of the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry
of Lands Natural Resources and the office of the Commissioner of Lands in order
to cater for improved land use and compliance of the lease covenants relating to
good land husbandry practices and land tenure issues38.
22
National Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
(REDD+), 2015
Climate change exacerbated by increased emissions is known and already manifested
as a development challenge in Zambia, affecting the productivity of key economic
sectors of the Zambian economy such as agriculture. The REDD+ Strategy39
advocates for interventions that addresses the need for agricultural intensification
leading to reduced frequency of clearance of forests for increased agricultural
productivity through:
• The collaboration and coordination between the Forestry Department and the
Department of Agriculture leading to staff being trained in farming systems
diagnosis for selecting areas for specific agricultural intensification practices.
• The Forestry Department playing a critical role in the establishment of
community nurseries and conducting extension services for appropriate on-farm
agroforestry tree species and technologies for agricultural intensification; and
• Implementing appropriate Climate Smart Agriculture(CSA) demonstrations to
improve adoption in the target areas.
The REDD+ Strategy also acknowledges that the proximate drivers of deforestation
and forest degradation in Zambia are specific to its forestry, agriculture, energy,
mining, and land use (infrastructure development) sectors. For the agriculture sector,
the drivers have been categorized as follows;
• Extensive and unsustainable crop production practices
• Poor livestock management practices
• Agro-processing reliance on wood fuel
• Lack of incentives for agricultural intensification
• Use of fire for land preparation
The REDD+ strategy therefore promotes key elements of CSA approaches such as
zero-or minimum-tillage (reduced emissions from soil), spot planting and other
techniques that aim at improving soil fertility, water use efficiency and efficient
cycling of organic matter from crop residues into the soil; effectively reducing
deforestation.
The strategy also advocates for landscape approaches at watershed level and
through policy reforms at national level. Landscape approaches take into account
all land uses in a holistic way (including water and wildlife) and works to lessen the
competition for natural resources among different sectors. The approach ensures
that the best possible balance is achieved among a range of different development
objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and
biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved livelihoods.
39. Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection & Forestry Department, Zambia National Strategy
to Reduce Emmisions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation., 2015.
23
40. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Adaptation Programme, 2007.
41. Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP) 2014-2018, 2014.
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change, 2007
National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) on Climate Change recognizes that
Region I of the Zambian agro-ecological zones is extremely vulnerable to climate
change, followed by Region II in terms of arable cropping40. Hence planning for
climate change in these two regions is definitely a necessity. NAPA indicate that
results from crop production, suggested that key varieties, particularly maize, would
not mature due to shortening of the growing season in agro-ecological Regions
I and II, respectively, undermining food security in the two regions. NAPA further
acknowledges that the southern part of Zambia is drought-prone.
NAPA proposes the following adaptation measures in the agriculture sector.
• Production of cereals, legumes, root and tuber crops, and horticultural crops
including promotion of early maturing/drought resistance crops;
• Promotion of irrigation and efficient use of water resources;
• Water harvesting; and
• Use of technologies for fertility improvement and moisture storage (including
soil conservation measures.
National Agriculture Investment Plan (NAIP), 2014-2018
The National Agriculture Investment Plan promotes sustainable use of natural
resources through the Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources Programme.
The key objective of the programme was to create and enhance the sustainable use
and maintenance of the existing agricultural resource base to efficiently support
vibrant and resilient agricultural production systems. These include land-use
planning, improving land use planning, and reducing land degradation in priority
catchments. Forestry Management was to target reduction in deforestation due to
shifting cultivation and agriculture extensification41.
NAIP further advocated for the promotion of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) which
addresses a number of challenges, including: low levels of improved input adoption;
poor response to fertilizer use due to high soil acidity, and; low adoption rates of
Conservation Agriculture (CA) as these are all embedded in Good Agricultural
Practices.
NAIP also recognized limited availability of extension services to farmers. At the time
of developing the NAIP, Principle Methodology Extension Officers estimates indicated
that the extension officer to farmer ratio in Zambia was only 1:900. This far exceeded
the recommended level of 1:400. Moreover, a World Bank Report of 2010 estimated
24
that Agricultural Officers spend 75 to 80% of their time dealing with FISP logistics
between August and January. This leaves very little time for them to dedicate to their
core work of providing extension advice to farmers especially advice on the need to
adopt CSA practices aimed at building resilience against climate change.
NAIP advocated for the development and piloting use of renewable (bio-energy)
options for smallholders such as mini biogas plants using manure.
NAIP BUDGET TABLE ON
NEXT PAGE
25
Programme Implementation Period (years) Total Source of Funding
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 GRZ/CP Farmers Private Sector
Crops Production and
Productivity 180.30 180.39 180.54 155.44 156.01 852.68 379.12 319.25 154.30
Livestock production
and productivity 68.51 75.17 81.45 69.96 59.16 354.25 331.6 20.19 2.00
Aquaculture Production
and Production 12.89 11.57 10.79 10.21 6.09 51.57 45.58 1.93 4.06
Market Access and
Services Development 19.62 55.82 99.70 23.23 58.80 257.21 209.73 11.48 35.99
Food and Nutrition
Security and Disaster
Management
110.13 137.27 137.80 137.49 137.17 659.86 640.71 19.15 0.00
Sustainable Support
Resources Management 39;15 62.43 66.77 62.24 50.22 280.80 259.79 19.66 1.35
Knowledge Support
System 49.91 69.00 50.38 41.79 43.39 254.48 254.48 0.00 0.00
Institutional
Strengthening 7.86 5.09 2.60 2.032.28 19.86 19.86 19.86 0.00 0.00
Total 488.37 596.02 630.02 503.02 513.13 2730.69 2141.33 391.67 197.70
Table 1: NAIP Budget (US $Million) by Programme, year and Financier 2014 – 2018
Source: NAIP,2016
The figures above shows the NAIP budget for the years 2014-2018. A considerably high amount of US $280million was budgeted for
the Sustainable Natural Resources Management Programme which included components that covered promotion of CSA approaches.
Since NAIP came to an end in 2018, there is need to review the performance NAIP before developing the successor programme which
is long overdue.
26
National Forestry Policy, 2009
Zambia’s abundant forest resources are threatened due to unsustainable harvesting
practices and competition for forest land for agriculture, settlements, mining, and
other land uses. Estimates by Integrated Land Use Assessment (ILUA) have shown
that the deforestation rate is between 75,000 to 150,000 hectares per annum which
is attributable primarily to agriculture expansion into the forested land.
Erosion
Deforestation Temperature
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Permanent land use changes, driven by low crop productivity in crop lands under
subsistence agriculture, and a combination of factors have therefore been the
major cause of deforestation. The National Forestry Policy42 advocates for the
following strategies to promote sustainable agricultural practices;
1. Promotion of a land-use system that ensures the protection of headwaters,
river basins and terrestrial resources
2. Facilitating sufficient and sustainable allocation of land between major
competing uses and sectors such as agriculture, energy and mining
3. Developing a management system that promotes the functional role of forestry
in maintaining ecological and climatic functions.
42. Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Forestry Policy (Lusaka, 2009).
27
Presidential/ Ministerial Pronouncements
During the official opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly
in 2019, President Lungu advocated for the promotion of climate smart agricultural
practices which are poised at improving agricultural production and productivity.
The President indicated that Government was promoting climate resilient food
crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava and yams – these crops are not only
resilient to adverse weather conditions, but are also nutritious. The President
encouraged every Zambian to engage in some form of agriculture because of its
key role in guaranteeing national food security. In an effort to reduce dependency
on rain-fed agriculture, the President also indicated that Government working with
Cooperating Partners had up-scaled irrigation development projects; with dams
being constructed across the country with a total capacity of eight million cubic
meters43.
Minister of Finance, Bwalya Ng’andu in his 2020 Budget Address44 to Parliament
indicated that climate change related challenges required the adoption of climate
smart agricultural technologies and practices. The Minister also indicated that
Government was going to build capacity of the Zambia Meteorological Department
(ZMD) to improve early warning systems.
Literature indicates that information on climate patterns is processed at the ZMD
that could contribute to adaptation, especially in the agricultural sector. However,
this information is not adequately packaged and distributed to those farmers that
would be the most affected by crop failure. It has been noted that such information
stays at higher levels and does not reach grass root where it is really needed.
There is a communication gap between the Zambia Meteorological Department
and District authorities at different levels
43. National Assembly of Zambia, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by
President Edgar Lungu.
44. National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the
National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019.
28
Why carbon tax should be rationalized across all sectors
Figure 3 on the next page45 shows that Green House Gas (GHG) emissions in Zambia
have increased by 124 % from 14.463 Megatons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent
in 1990 to 32.392 Megatons of CO2 equivalent in 2015 46.
United States of America International Development (USAID)47 analysis indicates
that the largest contribution to GHG emissions in Zambia came from land use
change and forestry, which accounted for 73.7% followed by agriculture at 18.9%.
Energy contributed 4.8% followed by industrial processes and waste at 1.8% and
0.8%, respectively.
Chinese firms operating in Zambia
that have invested in various sectors
of the economy
500 CO2
32.392
Megatons of CO2
in 2015 from
14,463 Megatons of CO2
in 1990.
Agriculture Energy
Land use change Forestry
45. The estimates are based on Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
adopted by annual Conference of Parties (COP 2014) since year 2015
46. M. Crippa and others, Fossil Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions of All World Countries Contact Information (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2019) <https://doi.org/10.2760/687800>.
47. United States of America International Development (USAID), ‘Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Zambia’, 2015 <www.
climatelinks.org/resources/greenhouse-gas-emissions-factsheet-zambia> [accessed 11 November 2019].
29
Year Mt CO2
/yr GHG: Mt CO2
eq/yr t CO2
/cap/yr GHG: t CO2
eq/cap/yr t CO2
/kUSD/yr
2018 11.768 N/A 0.407 N/A 0.181
2015 14.287 32.392 0.531 1.203 0.173
2005 21.777 38.367 1.058 1.864 0.255
1990 6.887 12.463 0.571 1.200 0.172
Source; M. Crippa and others,2019
Source on icons: https://www.freepik.com
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2210
2012
2014
2015
Mt CO2eq/yr
t CO2eq/cap/year, t CO2eq/kUSD GDP/year
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Power
Industry
2018 Vs 1990 (CO2
)
+149% +212% -3%
+164% +229% -58%
+361% +412% -53%
-33%
+336%
-24%
+162%
-45%
+11%
2015 Vs 1990 (GHG) 2015 Vs 2005 (GHG)
Other Industrial
Combustion
Transport
Buildings
CH4
CO2
eq/cap CO2eq/GDP
Greenhouse gas emissions
Figure 3: Estimates of GHG for Zambia ,1990-2015
N2O F-gases CO2
Other Sectors
30
Zambia should consider the imposition of a carbon tax across all sector as opposed to
the motor vehicle carbon tax only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation
and adaptation. Carbon tax is a Pigovian tax since it returns the cost of global
warming to their producers and can consequently reduce carbon emissions as a
mitigative measure. Resources realized from the carbon taxes can be channelled to
adaptive measures such as investments into climate smart agriculture practices
and distribution of relief foods to areas affected by climate change. Zambia can
learn from South Africa who in May 2019 enacted a long-delayed carbon tax into law
as one of the continent’s worst polluters.
LESSONS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES
Tanzania
For successful implementation of Conservation Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices
to occur, Tanzania used a participatory dissemination method involving farmers in
problem analysis, setting extension priorities, planning and obtaining feedback from
them. The community involvement in planning through demonstration plots and field
schools provided a platform for farmers’ participation and feedback48. The Himo
Environmental Management (HEM) project successfully used community participation
integrated in the village local Government through formation of village committees
to sensitize, raise awareness, convincing farmers, train, plan, and implement
Conservation Agriculture (CA) and erosion control49. The village committee members
that include village leaders and Government extension staff, and the strength of
leadership were considered key in success of HEM project in Tanzania.
Kagera River Basic (Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda and Tanzania)
Another success story in the implementation of substantiable agriculture is the
Transboundary Agro-ecosystem Management Project for the Kagera River Basin.
The goal of the project which was administered by Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO), was to adopt an integrated ecosystem approach for the management of land
resources in the Kagera River Basin50. The Basin is shared by Burundi, Rwanda,
Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. Through a landscape approach the
project helped restore degraded lands, adapt to climate change and promoted
agricultural biodiversity in a sustainable way while improving agricultural production,
rural livelihoods and food security. One of the farmers living in Kiruhura District
in Uganda was inspired to take on the new way of herd management to improve
his income after being introduced to better farming methods that enabled him to
keep a small, high productivity herd while combining this activity with agricultural
cultivations.
He sold 150 heads of cattle to keep only 10 and managed to increase his income from milk while planting about 10,000 trees, one acre of fruit trees, pastures and leguminous fodders whose seeds he supplied to other farmers51. In addition, his farming benefits from gardens of maize, cauliflower, carrots in addition to 20 bee
hives increased.
hives increased.
He attributed the quick adoption of the new land management way
48. Lengale Consulting Company Limited, Documentation of the Lessons and the Best Practices For Climate Smart SmallScale Agriculture, 2013.
49. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
50. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
51. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
31
to Farmer Field School activities that promote farmer-to farmer learning.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to encourage adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), due consideration
need to be given to the following recommendations;
• The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and other stakeholders need to upscale field visits among small scale farmers to effectively promote the adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices.
• MOA needs to adequately package Zambia Metrological Department (ZMD) information and distribute to those farmers that would be the most affected by crop failure and there is need to narrow the communication gap between the ZMD and District authorities at different levels.
• Government through the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and MOA need to further provide tax incentives on all farming inputs that enhance CSA approaches such as subsidized organic fertilizers, zero tax rates on selected farm equipment and inclusion of starter packs for agroforestry.
48. Lengale Consulting Company Limited, Documentation of the Lessons and the Best Practices For Climate Smart SmallScale Agriculture, 2013.
49. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
50. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
51. Lengale Consulting Company Limited.
31
to Farmer Field School activities that promote farmer-to farmer learning.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to encourage adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), due consideration
need to be given to the following recommendations;
• The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and other stakeholders need to upscale field visits among small scale farmers to effectively promote the adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices.
• MOA needs to adequately package Zambia Metrological Department (ZMD) information and distribute to those farmers that would be the most affected by crop failure and there is need to narrow the communication gap between the ZMD and District authorities at different levels.
• Government through the Ministry of Finance (MOF) and MOA need to further provide tax incentives on all farming inputs that enhance CSA approaches such as subsidized organic fertilizers, zero tax rates on selected farm equipment and inclusion of starter packs for agroforestry.
Both the Fertilizer Input Support Programme (FISP) and agroforestry should have in-built incentive measures
that award adopters.
• MOA needs to employ more extension staff to meet the recommended ratio of 400:1 (four hundred farmers to one extension officer). Extension officers play a key role in training farmers on CSA practices.
• Successful adoption of CSA practices such as Conservation Farming (CA) having
been linked to land rights. In this vein the Government is urged to address the
issue of land rights by improving the land titling procedure and waiting time.
• In all sustainable land approaches in the Agriculture sector, Government is urged to use the landscape approach that takes into account the multiple functions of land and other ecosystems. The approach ensures that the best possible balance is achieved among a range of different development objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved livelihoods.
• We urge Government to extend carbon tax to all other sectors that use fossil fuels as opposed to motor vehicle only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation and adaptation. The resources realized from the tax can be utilized
to promote Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and provision of relief food to families worst hit by the impacts of climate change. Carbon tax is a Pigovian tax since it returns the cost of global warming to their producers and can consequently reduce carbon emissions as a mitigative measure. Zambia can learn from South Africa who in May 2019 enacted a long- delayed carbon tax into
law as one of the continent’s worst polluters.
that award adopters.
• MOA needs to employ more extension staff to meet the recommended ratio of 400:1 (four hundred farmers to one extension officer). Extension officers play a key role in training farmers on CSA practices.
• Successful adoption of CSA practices such as Conservation Farming (CA) having
been linked to land rights. In this vein the Government is urged to address the
issue of land rights by improving the land titling procedure and waiting time.
• In all sustainable land approaches in the Agriculture sector, Government is urged to use the landscape approach that takes into account the multiple functions of land and other ecosystems. The approach ensures that the best possible balance is achieved among a range of different development objectives, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, environmental and biodiversity conservation, enhanced economic productivity, and improved livelihoods.
• We urge Government to extend carbon tax to all other sectors that use fossil fuels as opposed to motor vehicle only. Carbon tax can serve both purposes of mitigation and adaptation. The resources realized from the tax can be utilized
to promote Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and provision of relief food to families worst hit by the impacts of climate change. Carbon tax is a Pigovian tax since it returns the cost of global warming to their producers and can consequently reduce carbon emissions as a mitigative measure. Zambia can learn from South Africa who in May 2019 enacted a long- delayed carbon tax into
law as one of the continent’s worst polluters.
32
CONCLUSION
This paper reviewed Zambia’s efforts in streamlining Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) by pulling together existing information (from documents and stakeholder interviews).
This paper reviewed Zambia’s efforts in streamlining Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) by pulling together existing information (from documents and stakeholder interviews).
It describes the current evidence, and has identified some of the gaps pertaining to climate change. It also gave an overview of national vulnerability to climate change especially in the agricultural sector, the policy framework to address climate change, and some actions/strategies taken to mitigate and adapt to climate change in the sector.
To be effective, CSA adaptation interventions need to be main-streamed across multiple sectors and greater policy coherence is essential. To effectively mainstream climate change adaptation, Government is urged to actively embrace longer-term cross-sectoral planning through cross-ministerial structures, such as those initiated through Zambia’s Climate Change Departments under the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources and Ministry of National Development Planning.
This may foster greater policy coherence and integrated adaptation planning. The department however, needs to conduct regular monitoring and periodic evaluation of various Climate Change interventions outputs, outcomes and impacts.
To enhance main-streaming of CSA across sectors, future policy documents need to explicitly incorporate Climate Smart Agricultural polices as opposed to using broad and general terms such as good agriculture practice or sustainable agriculture.
33 References
33 References
Crippa, M., G. Oreggioni, D. Guizzardi, M. Muntean, E. Schaaf, E. Lo Vullo, and others, Fossil Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and and Green House Gas (GHH) Emissions of All World Countries Contact Information (European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2019) <https://doi.org/10.2760/687800>
Forestry Department- Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Integrated Land Use Assessment Phase II, 2017
Irish Aid-Resilience and Economic Inclusion Team, Zambia Climate Action Report for 2016, 2017
Jain, Suman, An Empirical Economic Assessment of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Zambia, The World Bank ,Development Research Group WPS4291, 2007 Lengale Consulting Company Limited, Documentation of the Lessons and the Best Practices For Climate Smart Small-Scale Agriculture, 2013
Lusaka Times-Online Publication, ‘Current Load Shedding of 15 Hours to Remain – ZESCO’, Lusaka Times-Online Publication, 30 October 2019 <https://www.lusakatimes.com/2019/10/30/current-load-shedding-of-15-hours-to-remain-zesco/> Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season., 2019
———, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS), 2016
———, Zambia National Agriculture Investment Plan ( NAIP ) 2014-2018, 2014
Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Second National Agricultural Policy (Lusaka,Zambia: Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 2016)
Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia, National Energy Policy
Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection & Forestry Department, Zambia National Strategy to Reduce Emmisions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation., 2015
Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection – Government of Republic of Zambia, National Policy on Climate Change (Lusaka,Zambia, 2016)
Ministry of National Development planning-Zambia, Seventh National Development Plan -2017-2021
Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Adaptation Programme, 2007
———, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) (Lusaka, 2010)
———, National Forestry Policy (Lusaka, 2009) Mwila, Alfred, Besa Chimbaka, Gerson Banda, and Chenela Nkowani, Impact of Load Shedding on Small Scale Enterprises, Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Working Paper (Lusaka, 2017)
National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019, 2019
———, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by President Edgar Lungu, 2019 Samboko, Paul, Antony Chapoto, Auckland Kuteya, Stephen Kabwe, Rhoda Mofya-mukuka, Bruno Mweemba, and others, The Impact of Power Rationing on Zambia ’ s Agricultural Sector, IAPRI Working Paper (Lusaka, 2016)
United Nations (UN), ‘Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.’, United Nations Web Page, 2016 <https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/> [accessed 12 November 2019]
United States of America Internatonal Development (USAID), ‘Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Zambia’, 2015 <www.climatelinks.
org/resources/greenhouse-gas-emissions-factsheet-zambia> [accessed 11 November 2019]
World Bank Group, ‘Climate Knowledge Portal.’, World Bank Group Web Page, 2019 <https://climateknowledgeportal.
worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical> [accessed 11 November 2019]
Zambia Statistics Agency, 2015 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) (Lusaka,Zambia, 2015)
Zulu-mbata, Olipa, Antony Chapoto, and Munguzwe Hichaambwa, What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers in Zambia ?, Indaba Agriculture Research Institute (IAPRI) Working Paper (Lusaka, 2018)
34 Unlocking Zambia’s Potential
Correspondence on this Analysis can be sent to:
info@pmrczambia.net
Policy Monitoring and Research Centre (PMRC)
Ministry of National Development Complex,Corner of John Mbita and Nationalist Roads, Ridgeway,
Private Bag KL 10
Tel: +260 211 269 717 | +260 979 015 660
www.pmrczambia.com
Forestry Department- Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Integrated Land Use Assessment Phase II, 2017
Irish Aid-Resilience and Economic Inclusion Team, Zambia Climate Action Report for 2016, 2017
Jain, Suman, An Empirical Economic Assessment of Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture in Zambia, The World Bank ,Development Research Group WPS4291, 2007 Lengale Consulting Company Limited, Documentation of the Lessons and the Best Practices For Climate Smart Small-Scale Agriculture, 2013
Lusaka Times-Online Publication, ‘Current Load Shedding of 15 Hours to Remain – ZESCO’, Lusaka Times-Online Publication, 30 October 2019 <https://www.lusakatimes.com/2019/10/30/current-load-shedding-of-15-hours-to-remain-zesco/> Ministry of Agriculture, Ministerial Statement by Minister of Agriculture, Honourable Michael Katambo on Crop Forecasting Survey & Food Security Status for the 2019/2020 Agriculture and Marketing Season., 2019
———, National Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Strategy (NAESS), 2016
———, Zambia National Agriculture Investment Plan ( NAIP ) 2014-2018, 2014
Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Second National Agricultural Policy (Lusaka,Zambia: Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, 2016)
Ministry of Energy and Water Development – Zambia, National Energy Policy
Ministry of Lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection & Forestry Department, Zambia National Strategy to Reduce Emmisions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation., 2015
Ministry of National Development Planning & Ministry of lands Natural Resources and Environmental Protection – Government of Republic of Zambia, National Policy on Climate Change (Lusaka,Zambia, 2016)
Ministry of National Development planning-Zambia, Seventh National Development Plan -2017-2021
Ministry of Tourism Environment and Natural Resources-Zambia, National Adaptation Programme, 2007
———, National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) (Lusaka, 2010)
———, National Forestry Policy (Lusaka, 2009) Mwila, Alfred, Besa Chimbaka, Gerson Banda, and Chenela Nkowani, Impact of Load Shedding on Small Scale Enterprises, Energy Regulation Board (ERB), Working Paper (Lusaka, 2017)
National Assembly of Zambia, 2020 Budget Address by Honourable Dr.Ng’andu, Minister of Finance, Delivered to the National Assembly on Friday 27th September, 2019, 2019
———, Speech for the Official Opening of the Fourth Session of the Twelfth National Assembly by President Edgar Lungu, 2019 Samboko, Paul, Antony Chapoto, Auckland Kuteya, Stephen Kabwe, Rhoda Mofya-mukuka, Bruno Mweemba, and others, The Impact of Power Rationing on Zambia ’ s Agricultural Sector, IAPRI Working Paper (Lusaka, 2016)
United Nations (UN), ‘Goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.’, United Nations Web Page, 2016 <https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/climate-action/> [accessed 12 November 2019]
United States of America Internatonal Development (USAID), ‘Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Zambia’, 2015 <www.climatelinks.
org/resources/greenhouse-gas-emissions-factsheet-zambia> [accessed 11 November 2019]
World Bank Group, ‘Climate Knowledge Portal.’, World Bank Group Web Page, 2019 <https://climateknowledgeportal.
worldbank.org/country/zambia/climate-data-historical> [accessed 11 November 2019]
Zambia Statistics Agency, 2015 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) (Lusaka,Zambia, 2015)
Zulu-mbata, Olipa, Antony Chapoto, and Munguzwe Hichaambwa, What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers What Drives Conservation Agriculture Adoption among Smallholder Farmers in Zambia ?, Indaba Agriculture Research Institute (IAPRI) Working Paper (Lusaka, 2018)
34 Unlocking Zambia’s Potential
Correspondence on this Analysis can be sent to:
info@pmrczambia.net
Policy Monitoring and Research Centre (PMRC)
Ministry of National Development Complex,Corner of John Mbita and Nationalist Roads, Ridgeway,
Private Bag KL 10
Tel: +260 211 269 717 | +260 979 015 660
www.pmrczambia.com
